• Custom Writing Services
  • How to Write a Research Paper
  • Research Paper Topics
  • Research Paper Examples
  • Order

Communication

iResearchNet

Custom Writing Services

Custom Writing Services
Communication » Media » Physical Effects of Media Content

Physical Effects of Media Content




The physical effects of media content are understood as the direct influence of the media on the organism. This includes mainly processes of physiological arousal as well as emotional effects evoking joy or fear, a pleasant mood or stress.

Early one-dimensional arousal theories (Lindsley 1951; Duffy 1962) stated that physiological arousal comprises unspecific activation on which degrees of alertness of the organism are dependent. Schachter used this assumption for a two-factor model of emotion according to which emotion results from the combination of arousal and cognition (Schachter 1964). For Schachter, positive and negative emotion are identical on a physiological level and can be differentiated only by cognitive evaluation and causal attributions.




This concept left its mark on communication research and inspired a great deal of research on media reception. Sturm et al. (1982) used a combination of physiological and cognitive measuring to explore the emotional involvement of children while watching TV. They found that the breathing amplitude while watching a filmic story varies systematically with the dramatic course the story takes and its evaluation as “pleasant” or “unpleasant.” This parallelism of physiological indicator Physiological Measurement) and cognitive evaluation can be seen as a solid arousal–appraisal conjunction according to Schachter. The authors also found inconsistent results: the skin conductance level (SCL) rose continually without a clear connection to cognitive evaluation.

Zillmann used the Schachter concept as a basis for his excitation transfer model which plays an important part in media violence research (Zillmann 1971). The model states that residual arousal caused by an earlier filmic event leads to cognitive re-evaluation in a new situation and thereby to reinforcement of existing behavior. For instance, hostile attitudes can be reinforced by highly arousing erotic content if the surrounding conditions (e.g., frustrating or annoying factors) stimulate aggressive behavior. On the other hand, it is possible to enhance helpfulness by showing frightening filmic material if the situation inspires pro-social behavior.

One problem of Schachter’s theory and its practical applications in communication studies is that the variability of cognitive interpretation of arousal tends to be overestimated and there is often not enough distinction between different arousal indicators. Film reception experiments by Lazarus and his colleagues (1962) show that the skin conductance level indicates stressful film events. Heart rate and blood pressure, however, indicate motor activation or pleasant arousal. According to the two-arousal hypothesis by Routtenberg (1968) and further developments by Gray (1982). Gray argues for at least two different arousal systems that can, depending on the surrounding conditions for the individual, either enhance or obstruct each other. The behavioral activation system (BAS) prepares the organism for motor activities, e.g., in the context of fight or flight, and easily reacts to rewarding cues. The behavioral inhibition system (BIS) is stimulated by fear, and usually interrupts motor action and promotes cognitive activities (Fowles 1980). Both types of arousal can be influenced by cognition, but cannot be modified at will in any way.

With this concept in mind, the dissociation between the SCL (indicator for BIS) and heart rate (indicator for BAS) during the course of a dramatic filmic chase can be explained. In a viewer experiment (Grimm 1999), both arousal indicators ran parallel as long as a woman on the run (and with her the viewers) saw a chance of escaping several aggressive men. When a few scenes later the men finally caught up with the woman and she realized the situation was hopeless, the viewers’, and also presumably the victim’s, BAS activities suddenly dropped while BIS arousal continued to rise. BIS thereby developed an obstructing function for BAS in order to protect the organism from useless and potentially damaging arousal and to make further cognitive operations possible.

Today, empirical research has shown that cognition does not only function as a subsequent attribute of arousal states, but also actively creates them. Zillmann (1988) proved that intentional exposure to media content can interrupt adversive moods and aggressive feelings. In dealing with frightening media content, the viewers use techniques of self-appeasement such as the affirmation “It’s only a movie.” In this way, unpleasantly high arousal levels can be regulated cognitively. On the other hand, people strive for arousal-inducing experiences to a certain extent in order to reach the arousal level that is suitable for them (Zuckerman 1979). “High sensation seekers” therefore prefer horror movies and pornography whereas “low sensation seekers” avoid intensively arousing movies (Zuckerman & Litle 1986). Buchsbaum & Silverman (1968) showed that a high level of arousal (BIS and BAS) is accompanied by higher cortical activity. According to this, “high sensation seekers” increase their cognitive arousal regulation together with the desired arousal intensity. This leads to the assumption that the gratification of arousal-inducing media use is not only generated by the BIS–BAS activation itself, but also by the regulation of arousal. This view is consistent with the emotion management concept (Vitouch 1993; Grimm 2006) according to which frightening media stimuli are sought out to enhance fear control. This usually implies a strengthening of BIS in relation to BAS.

As a BIS-dominated activity, television use can have damaging effects on a long-term basis. Hill et al. (2003) showed in a longitudinal study that the intensive use of television correlates with lack of exercise (weak BAS) and obesity. The so-called “couch potato” effect can be seen as unwanted long-term effect of an otherwise efficient activity of excitement monitoring from a physiological point of view.

Another rather underrated effect is the impact of heavy media use on the ability to concentrate. There is evidence that the continuous reception of fast shots and jump cuts in a movie may contribute to a state of enjoyable distraction, but will interfere with the ability to concentrate on something for a longer period of time (Christakis et al. 2004). Others, however, argue that television increases the speed of perception and thereby cognitive abilities.

References:

  1. Buchsbaum, M. S., & Silverman, J. (1968). Stimulus-intensity control and the cortical evoked response. Psychosomatic Medicine, 30, 12–22.
  2. Christakis, D. A., Zimmerman, F. J., DiGuiseppe, D. L., & McCarty, C. A. (2004). Early television exposure and subsequent attentional problems in children. Pediatrics, 13, 708–713.
  3. Duffy, E. (1962). Activation and behavior. New York: Wiley.
  4. Fowles, D. C. (1980). The three arousal model: Implications of Gray’s two-factor learning theory for heart rate, electrodermal activity and psychopathy. Psychophysiology, 17, 87–104.
  5. Gray, J. A. (1982). The neuropsychology of anxiety: An enquiry into the functions of the septohippocampal system. Oxford and New York: Clarendon.
  6. Grimm, J. (1999). Fernsehgewalt: Zuwendungsattraktivität – Erregungsverläufe – sozialer Effekt: Zur Begründung und praktischen Anwendung eines kognitiv-physiologischen Ansatzes der Medienrezeptionsforschung am Beispiel von Gewaltdarstellungen [Media violence: Attraction to exposure – arousal induction – social impact: Development and practical application of a cognitive-physiological approach of media reception research on filmic depictions of violence]. Opladen and Wiesbaden: Westdeutscher.
  7. Grimm, J. (2006). Vom Umgang mit Gefühlen beim Fernsehen: Theoretische Modelle und empirische Befunde [Coping with emotions while watching TV: Theoretical models and empirical results]. In B. Krause & U. Scheck (eds.), Gefühle und kultureller Wandel [Emotions and cultural change]. Tübingen: Stauffenburg, pp. 279–299.
  8. Hill, J. O., Wyatt, H. R., Reed, G. W., & Peters, J. C. (2003). Obesity and the environment: Where do we go from here? Science, 299, 853–855.
  9. Lazarus, R. S., et al. (1962). A laboratory study of psychological stress produced by a motion picture film. Psychological Monographs, 76.
  10. Lindsley, D. B. (1951). Emotions. In S. S. Stevens (ed.), Handbook of experimental psychology. New York: Wiley, pp. 473–516.
  11. Routtenberg, A. (1968). The two-arousal hypothesis: Reticular formation and limbic system. Psychological Review, 75, 51–81.
  12. Schachter, S. (1964). The interaction of cognitive and physiological determinants of emotional state. Advance in Experimental Social Psychology, 1, 49–80.
  13. Sturm, H., Vitouch, P., Bauer, H., & Grewe-Partsch, M. (1982). Emotion und Erregung – Kinder als Fernsehzuschauer: Eine psychophysiologische Untersuchung [Emotion and arousal – Children as viewers: A psycho-physiological study]. Fernsehen und Bildung, 16, 9–115.
  14. Vitouch, P. (1993). Fernsehen und Angstbewältigung: Zur Typologie des Zuschauerverhaltens [Televison and coping with fear: On a typology of audience behavior]. Opladen: Westdeutscher.
  15. Zillmann, D. (1971). Excitation transfer in communication-mediated aggressive behavior. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 7, 419–434.
  16. Zillmann, D. (1988). Cognition-excitation interdependencies in aggressive behavior. Aggressive Behavior, 14, 51–64.
  17. Zuckerman, M. (1979). Sensation seeking: Beyond the optimal level of arousal. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
  18. Zuckerman, M., & Litle, P. (1986). Personality and curiosity about morbid and sexual events. Personality and Individual Differences, 7, 49–56.




Communication Research

Communication Research

  • Media
    • Media Economics
    • Media Effects
    • Media History
    • Media Production and Content
    • Media Systems
    • Media and Perceptions of Reality
    • Excitation Transfer Theory
    • Effects Of Exemplification And Exemplars
    • Economics of Advertising
    • Antitrust Regulation
    • Audience Commodity
    • Brands
    • Circulation
    • Commercialization of the Media
    • Competition in Media Systems
    • Concentration in Media Systems
    • Consolidation of Media Markets
    • Consumers in Media Markets
    • Cost and Revenue Structures in the Media
    • Cross-Media Marketing
    • Distribution
    • Diversification of Media Markets
    • Economies of Scale in Media Markets
    • Globalization of the Media
    • Labor in the Media
    • Labor Unions in the Media
    • Markets of the Media
    • Media Conglomerates
    • Media Management
    • Media Marketing
    • Mergers
    • Ownership in the Media
    • Piracy
    • Political Economy of the Media
    • Privatization of the Media
    • Forms of Media Corporations
    • Public Goods
    • Agenda-Setting Effects
    • Appraisal Theory
    • Media Effects on Attitudes, Values, and Beliefs
    • Cognitive Availability
    • Albert Bandura
    • Catharsis Theory
    • Steven H. Chaffee
    • Credibility Effects
    • Cumulative Media Effects
    • Desensitization
    • Diffusion of Information and Innovation
    • Emotional Arousal Theory
    • Media Effects on Emotions
    • Effects of Entertainment
    • Fear Induction through Media Content
    • Leon Festinger
    • Framing Effects
    • Frustration Aggression Theory
    • George Gerbner
    • Carl I. Hovland
    • Intercultural Media Effects
    • Elihu Katz
    • Knowledge Gap Effects
    • Latitude of Acceptance
    • Linear and Nonlinear Models of Causal Analysis
    • Mainstreaming
    • Media Effects: Direct and Indirect Effects
    • Media Effects Duration
    • History of Media Effects
    • Media Effects Models: Elaborated Models
    • Strength of Media Effects
    • Media System Dependency Theory
    • Mediating Factors
    • Mediatization of Society
    • Structure of Message Effect
    • Elisabeth Noelle-Neumann
    • Effects of Nonverbal Signals
    • Observational Learning
    • Opinion Leader
    • Order of Presentation
    • Persuasion
    • Physical Effects of Media Content
    • Priming Theory
    • Media Effects on Public Opinion
    • Reciprocal Effects
    • Schemas and Media Effects
    • Effects of Sex and Pornography as Media Content
    • Sleeper Effect
    • Media Effects on Social Behavior
    • Media Effects on Social Capital
    • Social Judgment Theory
    • Trap Effect
    • Two-Step Flow of Communication
    • Secondary Victimization
    • Effects of Violence as Media Content
    • Academy Awards
    • History of Advertising
    • BBC
    • Cable Television
    • History of Censorship
    • History of Cinematography
    • History of Citizen Journalism
    • Civil Rights Movement and the Media
    • Coffee Houses as Public Sphere
    • Effects of Violence as Media Content
    • Academy Awards
    • Collective Memory and the Media
    • History of Digital Media
    • History of Documentary Film
    • History of Elections and Media
    • Electronic Mail
    • Federal Communications Commission (FCC)
    • Fleet Street
    • Fourth Estate
    • Graffiti
    • Historic Key Events and the Media
    • Illustrated Newspapers
    • Literary Journalism
    • History of Magazine
    • Music Videos
    • Nineteenth-Century New Journalism
    • History of News Agencies
    • History of News Magazine
    • Newscast
    • 24-Hour Newscast
    • Antecedents of Newspaper
    • History of Newspaper
    • Paperback Fiction
    • Penny Press
    • History of Postal Service
    • History of Printing
    • Newsreel
    • Freedom of Communication
    • Propaganda in World War II
    • History of Public Broadcasting
    • Radical Media
    • Radio Networks
    • Radio: Social History
    • Radio Technology
    • Satellite Television
    • History of Sports and the Media
    • History of Telegraph
    • Television Networks
    • Television: Social History
    • Television Technology
    • Underground Press
    • History of Violence and the Media
    • Virtual Reality
    • Watergate Scandal
    • Women’s Movement and the Media
    • Accountability of the Media
    • Accountability of the News
    • Accuracy
    • Balance
    • Bias in the News
    • Commentary
    • Commercialization: Impact on Media Content
    • Conflict as Media Content
    • Consonance of Media Content
    • Construction of Reality through the News
    • Credibility of Content
    • Crime Reporting
    • Editorial
    • Endorsement
    • Ethics of Media Content
    • Fairness Doctrine
    • Fictional Media Content
    • Framing of the News
    • Infotainment
    • Instrumental Actualization
    • Internet
    • Internet News
    • Local News
    • Magazine
    • Media Performance
    • Morality and Taste in Media Content
    • Narrative News Story
    • Negativity
    • Neutrality
    • News
    • News Factors
    • News Production and Technology
    • News Values
    • Newspaper
    • Objectivity in Reporting
    • Plurality
    • Quality of the News
    • Quality Press
    • Radio
    • Radio News
    • Reality and Media Reality
    • Scandalization in the News
    • Sensationalism
    • Separation of News and Comments
    • Soap Operas
    • Soft News
    • Sound Bites
    • Stereotypes
    • Synchronization of the News
    • Tabloid Press
    • Tabloidization
    • Television
    • News
    • Truth and Media Content
    • Violence as Media Content
    • Africa: Media Systems
    • Austria: Media System
    • Balkan States: Media Systems
    • Baltic States: Media Systems
    • Argentina: Media System
    • Bolivia: Media System
    • Brazil: Media System
    • Canada: Media System
    • Caribbean States: Media Systems
    • Central America: Media Systems
    • Chile: Media System
    • China: Media System
    • Colombia: Media System
    • Convergence of Media Systems
    • Cuba: Media System
    • Czech Republic: Media System
    • Egypt: Media System
    • France: Media System
    • Germany: Media System
    • Gulf States: Media Systems
    • India: Media System
    • Iran: Media System
    • Israel: Media System
    • Italy: Media System
    • Japan: Media System
    • Malaysia: Media System
    • Mexico: Media System
    • Netherlands: Media System
    • North Africa: Media Systems
    • Poland: Media System
    • Portugal: Media System
    • Public Broadcasting Systems
    • Russia: Media System
    • Scandinavian States: Media Systems
    • Singapore: Media System
    • South Africa: Media System
    • South Korea: Media System
    • Spain: Media System
    • Switzerland: Media System
    • United Kingdom: Media System
    • United States of America: Media System
    • West Asia: Media Systems
    • Behavioral Norms: Perception through the Media
    • Body Images in the Media
    • Computer Games and Reality Perception
    • Cultivation Effects
    • Disowning Projection
    • Entertainment Content and Reality Perception
    • Extra-Media Data
    • False Consensus
    • False Uniqueness
    • Media Campaigns And Perceptions Of Reality
    • Media Content and Social Networks
    • Media Messages and Family Communication
    • Media and Perceptions of Reality
    • Perceived Realism as a Decision Process
    • Perceived Reality as a Communication Process
    • Perceived Reality: Meta-Analyses
    • Perceived Reality as a Social Process
    • Pluralistic Ignorance
    • Pluralistic Ignorance and Ideological Biases
    • Social Perception
    • Social Perception: Impersonal Impact
    • Social Perception: Unrealistic Optimism
    • Socialization by the Media
    • Spiral of Silence
    • Stereotyping and the Media
    • Third-Person Effects
    • Video Malaise

Custom Writing Services

Custom Writing Services